MIXTURES - #13

**** ADD THIS FLOW DIAGRAMS IN YOUR NOTES

Separating Mixtures

Many of the substances we use everyday were actually once part of a mixture. Someone somewhere separated that substance from the mixture so we could use it. It turns out that many compounds and elements aren't found in nature in their pure form, but are found as parts of mixtures. Separating substances from mixtures is an important part of chemistry and modern industry. 

Some important chemistry terms are used in this section including mixtures, suspensions, and solutions.  Read carefully.

Chemical Mixtures

One of the main aspects of chemistry is combining different substances. Sometimes combining substances can cause a chemical reaction and bonding which creates an entirely new substance called a compound. However, sometimes there is no chemical reaction or bonding. In this case, a mixture is formed from the combined substances. 

Mixture

A mixture is made when two or more substances are combined, but they are not combined chemically.

General properties of a mixture:

• The components of a mixture can be easily separated
• The components each keep their original properties
• The proportion of the components is variable 

 Types of Mixtures

There are two main categories of mixtures: homogeneous mixtures and heterogeneous mixtures. 

• In a homogenous mixture all the substances are evenly distributed throughout the mixture (salt water, air, blood). 
• In a heterogeneous mixture the substances are not evenly distributed (chocolate chip cookies, pizza, rocks)
  

 

Within the categories of homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures there are more specific types of mixtures including solutions, alloys, suspensions, and colloids.
Solutions (homogeneous)

A solution is a mixture where one of the substances dissolves in the other. The substance that dissolves is called the solute. The substance that does not dissolve is called the solvent.

• An example of a solution is salt water. These components can be easily separated through evaporation and they each retain their original properties. However, the salt is dissolved into the water to where you can't see it and it is evenly distributed in the water. In this example the water is the solvent and the salt is the solute.

A saturated solution is one containing as much solute as possible without forming a precipitate. This is the maximum concentration of solute.

An unsaturated solution is a chemical solution in which the solute concentration is lower than its equilibrium solubility.

What is the difference between a solution and a mixture?

In chemistry a solution is actually a type of mixture. A solution is a mixture that is the same or uniform throughout. Think of the example of salt water. This is also called a "homogenous mixture." A mixture that is not a solution is not uniform throughout. 

• Think of the example of sand in water. This is also called a "heterogeneous mixture."

Alloys (homogeneous)

An alloy is a mixture of elements that has the characteristic of a metal. At least one of the elements mixed is a metal. 

• One example of an alloy is steel which is made from a mixture of iron and carbon.

Suspensions (heterogeneous)

A suspension is a mixture between a liquid and particles of a solid. In this case the particles do not dissolve. The particles and the liquid are mixed up so that the particles are dispersed throughout the liquid. They are "suspended" in the liquid. A key characteristic of a suspension is that the solid particles will settle and separate over time if left alone.

• An example of a suspension is a mixture of water and sand. When mixed up, the sand will disperse throughout the water. If left alone, the sand will settle to the bottom.

Colloids (heterogeneous)

A colloid is a mixture where very small particles of one substance are evenly distributed throughout another substance. They appear very similar to solutions, but the particles are suspended in the solution rather than fully dissolved. The difference between a colloid and a suspension is that the particles will not settle to the bottom over a period of time, they will stay suspended or float.

• An example of a colloid is milk. Milk is a mixture of liquid butterfat globules dispersed and suspended in water.

Colloids are generally considered heterogeneous mixtures, but have some qualities of homogeneous mixtures as well.

Interesting Facts about Mixtures

• Smoke is a mixture of particles that are suspended in the air.
• Tap water is a mixture of water and other particles. Pure water or H2O is generally referred to as distilled water.
• Many of the substances we come into contact with every day are mixtures including the air we breathe which is a mixture of gases like oxygen and nitrogen.
• Blood is a mixture that can be separated by a machine called a centrifuge into its two main parts: plasma and red blood cells.
• Mixtures can be liquids, gases, and solids.

SEPARATING MIXTURES 

Why do we want to separate mixtures? 

All the way back to Ancient History, industrious humans have separated mixtures in order to obtain the specific substances that they need. One example of this is extracting metal from ore in order to make tools and weapons. We'll discuss some other examples of separation below. 

Separation Processes 

The way in which different substances in a mixture are separated is called a process. There are a number of different processes used for separation. Many of them are very complex and involve dangerous chemicals or high temperatures. A lot of important industries in the world today are based on separation processes. 

Filtration 

One common method of separation is filtration. Filters are used everywhere. We use them in our houses to filter dust and mites out of the air we breathe. We use them to filter impurities from our water. We even have filters in our bodies such as our kidneys which act as filters to get bad stuff out of our blood. 

The filtration process is generally used to separate a suspension mixture where small solid particles are suspended in liquid or air. In the case of filtering water, the water is forced through a paper that is made up of a very fine mesh of fibers. The water that has been run through the filter is called the filtrate. The particles that are removed from the water by the filter are called the residue. 

Distillation 

Another common separation process is called distillation. Distillation uses boiling to separate mixtures of liquid solutions. It takes into account that different substances in the mixture will have different boiling points. 

For example, if you heat salt water the water in the solution will boil before the salt. The water will then evaporate leaving the salt behind. If the steam from the water is collected it will turn back into liquid as it cools. This cooled water will be pure water without any salt. 

Centrifuge In some cases, there are suspension mixtures where the solid particles are too fine to be separated with a filter. In these cases, sometimes a centrifuge is used. Centrifuges are mechanical devices that spin at very high speeds. These high speeds allow the solid particles in suspensions to settle very quickly.  For example, rather than wait for sand to slowly settle to the bottom of water, a centrifuge can cause the sand to settle in a matter of seconds. Some examples of how centrifuges are used include: separating blood into plasma and red cells separating cream from milk separating uranium isotopes for nuclear power plants.

The heavier particles move to the outside of the cylinder as the centrifuge spins allowing the mixture to be separated.

Other Processes 

There are many other separation processes such as sublimation, adsorption, crystallization, and chromatography. Sometimes it takes many stages of processes to get to the final result. 

• One example of this is the processing of crude oil. Crude oil uses many levels of fractional distillation to produce a number of different products including gasoline, jet fuel, propane gas, and heating oil. 

Interesting Facts about Separating Mixtures

• To separate liquid solutions where the substances have similar boiling points, a more complex version of distillation is used called fractional distillation.
• Painting uses the separation process of evaporation. The wet paint is a mixture of color pigment and a solvent. When the solvent dries and evaporates, only the color pigment is left.
• The separation process of winnowing was used in ancient cultures to separate the grain from the chaff. They would throw the mixture into the air and the wind would blow away the lighter chaff, leaving the heavier grain.
• High speed centrifuges can spin up to 30,000 times a minute.
• Many separation processes are occurring constantly in nature.

CHEMISTRY - SALTS #12

Soaps and Salts

What are salts? 

In chemistry, salts are ionic compounds that are formed from the neutralization reactions of an acid and a base. Salts have certain properties:

• Salts are made up of an equal number of anions (positive ions) and cations (negative ions)
• They are hard and brittle
• Most salts dissolve in water and are solids at room temperature
• They have strong bonds and a relatively high boiling point
• Salts are electrically neutral
• In their solid state, they arrange themselves in a rigid structure called a lattice

Salts come in a variety of tastes and colors. Some salts are not safe to eat. 

Table Salt 

What most people call "salt" is the chemical compound sodium chloride. It has the chemical formula NaCl. Sodium chloride dissolves in water and is what makes the ocean water salty. 

Salt is necessary for animal life. It is also used to enhance the taste of our foods and to preserve foods. 

Soap is a Salt 

In chemistry, soap is a type of salt. This is because it is formed from the mixing of an acid and a base. 

How does soap work? 

Soaps and detergents help to clean clothes, skin, dirty dishes, and other items by dissolving grease. Detergents are made up of special molecules. Part of these molecules is attracted to water. The other part is attracted to grease. The part that is attracted to grease will dissolve the grease and break it up into smaller components that can then be rinsed away by water. 

How is soap made? 

Humans have made soap all the way back to the ancient civilizations of the Babylonians and the Egyptians. For many years soap was made from a mixture of ashes, animal fat, and water. Although we no longer make soap the same way, the chemistry for making modern soap is very similar. 

Today soap is often made from a combination of fats and sodium hydroxide. As the soap is formed, the byproduct of glycerol is removed. Once the raw soap is produced, other ingredients like perfumes and colors can be added. The chemical process used to make soaps is called saponification. 

Interesting Facts about Soaps and Salts

• Salts can be made by mixing an acid and a base or an acid and a metal.
• Thallium salt was once used as rat and ant poison.
• The green color of an emerald is because of small amounts of the salt chromium oxide.
• Around 250 million tons of salt was produced in 2010. Most of it is produced by the evaporation of ocean water and salt lakes.
• Glycerol, the byproduct of soap manufacturing, is used for making other chemical compounds such as plastics and explosives.
• Several different salts go into the manufacture of glass.
• Liquid soap was not invented until the late 1800s.
• Soap is a key ingredient in many lubricating greases.

CHEMISTRY - CRYSTALS - #11

Crystals

What are crystals? 

Crystals are a special kind of solid material where the molecules fit together in a repeating pattern. This pattern causes the material to form all sorts of unique shapes. 

Amethyst Crystal

How do they form? 

The process of crystal forming is called crystallization. Crystals often form in nature when liquids cool and start to harden. Certain molecules in the liquid gather together as they attempt to become stable. They do this in a uniform and repeating pattern that forms the crystal. 

In nature, crystals can form when liquid rock, called magma, cools. If it cools slowly, then crystals may form. Many valuable crystals such as diamonds, rubies, and emeralds form this way. 

Another way crystals form is when water evaporates from a mixture. Salt crystals often form as salt water evaporates. 

What unique properties do crystals have? 

Crystals can have very flat surfaces called facets. They can form geometric shapes such as triangles, rectangles, and squares. The shapes are a direct result of the type of molecules and atoms that make up the crystal. Smaller crystals and larger crystals that were formed of the same molecules and in the same method should have similar shapes. 

There are seven basic crystal shapes, also called lattices. They are Cubic, Trigonal, Triclinic, Orthorhombic, Hexagonal, Tetragonal, and Monoclinic. 

Interesting Types of Crystals 

Snowflakes - Snowflakes are ice crystals that are formed high in the clouds when water freezes. They always have six sides or arms, but every one of them is unique. 

Timing crystals - When an electric current is sent through some crystals they vibrate at a very precise frequency. Quartz crystals are used in watches and other electronics to keep an accurate time. 

Quartz - Quartz is a common mineral and crystal. It is one of the hardest common minerals. The gemstone amethyst is a purple type of quartz. 

Diamonds - Diamonds are one of the most valuable minerals on Earth. Not only for jewelry, but diamond is also the hardest substance on earth and is used for special tools such as diamond saws. Diamond is a form of the element carbon. 

Fun facts About Crystals

• Crystallography is the science of studying crystals and how they form.
• Some crystals, like diamonds, are really just one giant molecule made from lots of atoms of a single element.
• A lot of computer screens use liquid crystals for their display.
• They are very popular in jewelry because they can sparkle and come in many different colors.
• Some living organisms are able to produce crystals.

SALT - VIDEO

CHEMISTRY - ACIDS & BASES - #10

Acids and Bases

Acids and Bases are two special kinds of chemicals. Almost all liquids are either acids or bases to some degree. Whether a liquid is an acid or base depends on the type of ions in it.

•  If it has a lot of hydrogen ions, then it is an acid.
•  If it has a lot of hydroxide ions, then it is a base. 

pH Scale 

Scientists use something called a pH scale to measure how acidic or basic a liquid is. 

• pH is a number from 0 to 14. 
• From 0 to 7 are acids, with 0 being the strongest. 
• From 7 to 14 are bases with 14 being the strongest base.
•  If a liquid has a pH of 7, it's neutral. This would be something like distilled water. 

Strong Acids and Bases 

Acids with a low pH of around 1 are very reactive and can be dangerous. The same is true for bases of a pH near 13. Chemists use strong acids and bases to get chemical reactions in the lab. Although they can be dangerous, these strong chemicals can also be helpful to us. 

*** Never handle acids or bases in a chemistry lab unless supervised by your teacher. They can be very dangerous and can burn your skin.

Acids and Bases in Nature 

There are many strong acids and bases in nature. Some of them are dangerous and used as poisons by insects and animals. Some are helpful. Many plants have acids and bases in their leaves, seeds, or even their sap. Citrus fruits like lemons and oranges have citric acid in their juice. This is what makes lemons taste so sour. 

Acids and Bases in our Bodies 

Our bodies use acids and bases too. Our stomachs use hydrochloric acid to help digest foods. This strong acid also kills bacteria and helps to keep us from getting sick. Our muscles produce lactic acid when we exercise. Also, our pancreas uses a base called an alkali to help with digestion. These are just a few examples of how the chemistry of bases and acids help our bodies function. 

Other Uses 

Science and technology makes good use of acids and bases. Car batteries use a strong acid called sulphuric acid. Chemical reactions between the acid and lead plates in the battery help make electricity to start the car. They are also used in many household cleaning products, baking soda, and to make fertilizer for crops. 

Fun Facts

• Acids and bases can help neutralize each other.
• Acids turn litmus paper red, bases turn it blue.
• Strong bases can be slippery and slimy feeling.
• Acids taste sour, bases taste bitter.
• Proteins are made up of amino acids.
• Vitamin C is also an acid called ascorbic acid.
• Ammonia is a base chemical.

ACTIVITIES:
ACID & BASES #1

CHEMISTRY - NAMING COMPOUNDS & BALANCING EQUATIONS #9

Naming Chemical Compounds

Chemical compounds are formed when elements are joined by chemical bonds.    These bonds are so strong that the compound behaves like a single substance. Compounds have their own properties that are unique from the elements they are made of. A compound is a type of molecule with more than one element. 

How Compounds are Named 

Chemists have a specific way of naming compounds. It is a standard method of naming compounds that is used by scientists around the world. The name is built from the elements and the construction of the molecule. 

Basic Naming Convention 

First we'll cover how to name molecules with two elements (binary compounds). The name of a compound with two elements has two words. 

To get the first word we use the name of the first element, or the element to the left of the formula. To get the second word we use the name of the second element and change the suffix to "ide" at the end of the word. 

Some examples of adding the "ide": 

O = oxygen = oxide
Cl = chlorine = chloride
Br = bromine = bromide
F = fluorine = fluoride 

Examples of binary compounds: 

NaCl - sodium chloride
MgS - magnesium sulfide
InP = indium phosphide 

What if there is more than one atom? 

In cases where there is more than one atom (for example there are two oxygen atoms in CO₂) you add a prefix to the start of the element based on the number of atoms. Here is a list of the prefixes used: 

# Atoms 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Prefix mono- di- tri- tetra- penta- hexa- hepta- octa- nona- deca-

** note: the "mono" prefix is not used on the first element. For example CO = carbon monoxide. 

Examples: 

CO₂ = carbon dioxide
N₂O = dinitrogen monoxide
CCL₄ = carbon tetrachloride
S₃N₂ = trisulfer dinitride 

How is the order of the elements determined? 

When there are two elements in a compound, which element goes first in the name? 

If the compound is made of a metal element and a nonmetal element, then the metal element is first. If there are two nonmetal elements, then the first name is the element to the left side of the periodic table. 

Examples:

• In a compound that contains iron and fluoride, the metal (iron) would go first.
• In a compound that contains carbon and oxygen the element to the left on the periodic table (carbon) would go first.

More Complex Naming Rules 

See below for some of the more complex naming rules. 

Naming Metal-Nonmetal Compounds 

If one of the two compounds is a metal, then the naming convention changes a bit. Using the stock method, a roman numeral is used after the metal to indicate which ion is using the charge. 

Examples: 

Ag₂Cl₂ = silver (II) dichloride
FeF₃ = iron (III) fluoride 

Naming Polyatomic Compounds 

Polyatomic compounds use a different suffix. Most of them end in "-ate" or "-ite". There are a few exceptions that end in "-ide" including hydroxide, peroxide, and cyanide. 

Examples: 

Na₂SO₄ = sodium sulfate
Na₃PO₄ = sodium phosphate
Na₂SO₃ = sodium sulfite 

Naming Acids 

Hydro acids use the prefix "hydro-" and the suffix "-ic". 

HF = hydrofluoric acid
HCl - hydrochloric acid 

Oxoacids containing oxygen use the "-ous" or the "-ic" suffix. The "-ic" suffix is used for the acid that has more oxygen atoms. 

H₂SO₄ = sulfuric acid
HNO₂ = nitrous acid
HNO₃ = nitric acid 

COMPOUND & MIXTURE - REVIEW CLOZE

Use this site to learn about compounds & mixtures.  Read carefully for details.  The cloze is a great review.

COMPLETE the COMPOUNDS & MIXTURE cloze.
DUE:  1/10/2014

REVIEW ACTIVITY:
COMPOUNDS & MIXTURES

Make sure to carefully review all notes & sites for preparation for the Quiz, Tuesday, 1/14
All P.S. Modules & Activities

ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS, & MIXTURES - QUIZZES

• There are 2 QUIZZES 
• QUIZ #1 - Click on Highlighted Link (write score on the notebook paper)
• QUIZ #2
• Number a piece of notebook paper 1 - 10, 
• Title - ELEMENT, COMPOUND, MIXTURE - QUIZ.
• You can write just the answers.  Turn into drawer.  
• You can use only notes in your notebook.  
• DUE:  12/16

QUIZ #1 (click highlighted link)

QUIZ #2 - (Notebook paper)

1. An unknown, clear liquid is given to you in a beaker. You transfer the liquid from the beaker to a clean, empty test-tube, and begin to heat it. After a while, you see vapours (which on further analysis you discover are vapours of water) rising from the test-tube, and pretty soon, all that's left are a few crystals of salt stuck to the edges! Was that liquid an element, compound or a mixture? Answer: (element, compound or mixture?)

2. You have just won a block of pure 24-carat gold. Have you just procured an element, compound or mixture? Answer: (element, compound or mixture?)

3. A dish is given to you, which contains a blackish-yellow powder. When you move a magnet over it, you are amazed to see black particles, (which you find out are iron) fly upwards and get stuck to the magnet, and all that's left in the dish is a yellow powder, which you discover to be sulphur (sulfur). Was your original powder an element, compound or mixture? Answer: (element, compound or mixture?)

4. A substance is analysed in a laboratory, and when viewed under an electron microscope, it is revealed that it contains only one kind of atom. Is the substance an element, compound or mixture? Answer: (element, compound or mixture?)

5. *Water* is what all life in the world depends on. Is it an element, compound or mixture? Answer: (element, compound or mixture?)

6. Aqua regia was a liquid used by alchemists to separate silver from gold. Was it an element, compound or mixture? Answer: (element, compound or mixture?)

7. This gas is essential for us, and all other aerobic organisms, to survive. We inhale it along with the air we breathe (of which it forms approximately 21%) and it then helps in the oxidation of glucose in our bodies. When not in its molecular form, is it an element, compound or mixture? Answer: (element, compound or mixture?)

8. A magnesium ribbon is burnt in the air, to form the greyish oxide of magnesium - magnesium oxide (MgO). Is this oxide an element, compound or a mixture? Answer: (element, compound or mixture?)

9. The air we breathe - is it an element, compound or mixture? Answer: (element, compound or mixture?)

10. These are given 'symbols' like 'Ar', 'Zn', 'W' and 'Xe', and are arranged in a table called the Periodic Table. Are they elements, compounds or mixtures?  compounds  elements  mixtures  both elements and compounds

P.S. - GASES #8

Looking for a Gas

Gas is everywhere. There is something called the atmosphere. That's a big layer of gas that surrounds the Earth. Gases are random groups of atoms. In solids, atoms and molecules are compact and close together. Liquids have atoms that are spread out a little more. Gases are really spread out and the atoms and molecules are full of energy. They are bouncing around constantly. 

Gases can fill a container of any size or shape. It doesn't even matter how big the container is. The molecules still spread out to fill the whole space equally. That is one of their physical characteristics. Think about a balloon. No matter what shape you make the balloon, it will be evenly filled with the gas molecules. The molecules are spread equally throughout the entire balloon. Liquids can only fill the bottom of the container, while gases can fill it entirely. The shape of liquids is really dependent on the force of gravity, while gases are light enough to have a little more freedom to move. 

You might hear the term "vapor." Vapor and gas mean the same thing. The word vapor is used to describe gases that are usually found as liquids. Good examples are water (H₂O) or mercury (Hg). Compounds like carbon dioxide (CO₂) are usually gases at room temperature, so scientists will rarely talk about carbon dioxide vapor. Water and mercury are liquids at room temperature, so they get the vapor title when they are in a gaseous phase. 

Compressing Gases

Gases hold huge amounts of energy, and their molecules are spread out as much as possible. With very little pressure, when compared to liquids and solids, those molecules can be compressed. It happens all of the time. Combinations of pressure and decreasing temperature force gases into tubes that we use every day. You might see compressed air in a spray bottle or feel the carbon dioxide rush out of a can of soda. Those are both examples of gas forced into a smaller space than it would want, and the gas escapes the first chance it gets. The gas molecules move from an area of high pressure to one of low pressure. 

P.S. - ENERGY TRANSFER #7

Evaporation of Liquids

Sometimes a liquid can be sitting in one place (maybe a puddle) and its molecules will become a gas. That's the process called evaporation. It can happen when liquids are cold or when they are warm. It happens more often with warmer liquids. You probably remember that when matter has a higher temperature, the molecules have a higher energy. When the energy in specific molecules reaches a certain level, they can have a phase change. Evaporation is all about the energy in individual molecules, not about the average energy of a system. The average energy can be low and the evaporation still continues. 

You might be wondering how that can happen when the temperature is low. It turns out that all liquids can evaporate at room temperature and normal air pressure. Evaporation happens when atoms or molecules escape from the liquid and turn into a vapor. Not all of the molecules in a liquid have the same energy. When you have a puddle of water (H₂O) on a windy day, the wind can cause an increased rate of evaporation even when it is cold out. 

Energy Transfer

The energy you can measure with a thermometer is really the average energy of all the molecules in the system. There are always a few molecules with a lot of energy and some with barely any energy at all. There is a variety, because the molecules in a liquid can move around. The molecules can bump into each other, and when they hit... Blam! A little bit of energy moves from one molecule to another. Since that energy is transferred, one molecule will have a little bit more and the other will have a little bit less. With trillions of molecules bouncing around, sometimes individual molecules gain enough energy to break free. They build up enough power to become a gas once they reach a specific energy level. In a word, when the molecule leaves, it has evaporated. 

The rate of evaporation can also increase with a decrease in the gas pressure around a liquid. Molecules like to move from areas of higher pressure to lower pressure. The molecules are basically sucked into the surrounding area to even out the pressure. Once the vapor pressure of the system reaches a specific level, the rate of evaporation will slow down. 

P.S. - LIQUID BASICS #6

Liquid Basics

The second state of matter we will discuss is a liquid. Solids are things you can hold that maintain their shape. Gases are floating around you or trapped in bubbles. What is a liquid? Water is a liquid. Your blood is a liquid. Liquids are an in-between state of matter. They can be found between the solid and gas states. They don't have to be made up of the same molecules. If you have a variety of materials dissolved in a liquid, it is called a solution. 

One characteristic of a liquid is that it will fill up the shape of a container. If you pour some water (H₂O) in a cup, it will fill up the bottom of the cup first and then fill the rest. The water will also take the shape of the cup. The top part of a liquid will usually have a flat surface. That flat surface is the result of gravity pulling on the molecules. Putting an ice cube (solid) into a cup will leave you with a cube in the middle of the cup because it is a solid. The shape of the solid cube won't change until the ice becomes a liquid. 

Another trait of a liquid is that it is difficult to compress. When you compress something, you measure out a certain amount of material and force it into a smaller space. Solids are very difficult to compress and gases are very easy. Liquids are in the middle, but tend to be difficult. When you compress something, you force the atoms closer together. When the pressure goes up, substances are compressed. Liquids already have their atoms close together, so they are hard to compress. Many shock absorbers in cars compress liquids in sealed tubes. 

Molecules Sticking Together

A special force keeps liquids together. Those intermolecular forces make sure that the molecules of the liquid stick to each other. Solids are stuck together and you have to force them apart. Gases bounce everywhere and they try to spread themselves out. Liquids actually want to stick together. There will always be the occasional evaporation, where extra energy gets a molecule excited and the molecule leaves the system. Overall, liquids have cohesive (sticky) forces at work to hold the molecules together. 

PHASES OF MATTER

PHASES OF MATTER GAME

PHASES OF MATTER #2

PHASES OF MATTER #3

Recall: Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy (energy of motion) of all the molecules or atoms in a material. All atoms are in motion to a lesser or greater extent, whether that be atomic vibrations in a rigid solid, or straight line motions in a gas.

In the gaseous state, molecules have so much kinetic energy that they fly off in all directions but repeatedly collide and bounce off of other molecules.
--- boiling temperature - condensation temperature ---
In the liquid state, atoms or molecules have sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the chemical bonds that held them in their crystal lattice and move independently, yet they don't have enough energy to separate completely from other atoms.
--- melting temperature - crystallization temperature ---
In the solid state, chemical bonds are stronger than the kinetic energy of the atoms. The atoms are locked into their crystal lattice positions. ***************************************** REVIEW We learned in some of our other lessons that matter is made up of atoms and molecules. Millions and millions of these tiny objects fit together to form larger things like animals and planets and cars. Matter includes the water we drink, the air we breathe, and the chair we are sitting on.  States or Phases  Matter usually exists in one of three states or phases: solid, liquid, or gas. The chair you are sitting on is a solid, the water you drink is liquid, and the air you breathe is a gas.  Changing State  The atoms and molecules don't change, but the way they move about does. Water, for example, is always made up of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. However, it can take the state of liquid, solid (ice), and gas (steam). Matter changes state when more energy gets added to it. Energy is often added in the form of heat or pressure.  Water  Solid water is called ice. This is water with the lowest energy and temperature. When solid, the molecules in water are held tightly together and don't move easily.  Liquid water is just called water. As ice heats up it will change phases to liquid water. Liquid molecules are looser and can move about easily.  Gas water is called steam or vapor. When water boils it will turn to vapor. These molecules are hotter, looser, and moving faster than the liquid molecules. They are more spread apart and can be compressed or squished. The three states of Water More States  There are actually two more states or phases that matter can take, but we don't see them much in our everyday life.  One is called plasma. Plasma occurs at very high temperatures and can be found in stars and lightning bolts. Plasma is like gas, but the molecules have lost some electrons and become ions.  Another state has the fancy name Bose-Einstein condensates. This state can occur at super low temperatures.  Fun Facts about Solids, Liquids, Gases Gases are often invisible and assume the shape and volume of their container. The air we breathe is made up of different gases, but it is mostly nitrogen and oxygen. We can see through some solids like glass. When liquid gasoline is burned in a car, it turns into various gases which go into the air from the exhaust pipe. Fire is a mixture of hot gases. Plasma is by far the most abundant state of matter in the universe because stars are mostly plasma. STATES OF MATTER